I would respectfully disagree that all northern Underground Railroad work was controlled by European Americans. At least in New York State, where I have done most of my research, African Americans were very much involved. Some of the major stations were kept by African Americans, such as Jermain Loguen (Syracuse), Stephen Myers (Albany), Tudor Grant (Oswego), and John Jones (Elmira). Major stations were also kept by European Americans. Much of the work was carried out by biracial groups, who raised money and shared responsibilities. In Rochester, e.g., Frederick Douglass and Amy Post worked together. In Syracuse Jermain and Caroline Loguen worked with Samuel J.May and dozens of others. In Oswego, Tudor Grant and John Mackenzie (both African Americans) worked with Sidney and Olive Clarke and Edwin W. and Charlotte Clarke (both European Americans). The more we look at what really happened at a local level here in upstate New York, the more this pattern repeats itself.